Section 7, New Army

On April 13, 1895, shortly after the conclusion of the First Sino-Japanese War, Yuan Shikai, who had distinguished himself during the Donghak Peasant Revolution in Korea and had entered the central political arena, submitted a memorial to Li Hongzhang, expressing his views on the current situation. He not only provided a detailed analysis of the reasons for the Qing army's defeat but also advocated for the adoption of Western methods in military training. Furthermore, he articulated his military education theory, which included "establishing numerous schools, selecting outstanding students, inviting Westerners as teachers, rigorously supervising classes, and sending students abroad for study and experience." Subsequently, Yuan Shikai wrote several more memorials outlining his military reform ideas and organized efforts to translate foreign military regulations and literature into Chinese. His aides translated and compiled a twelve-volume work titled "Army Military Books," which comprehensively introduced and commented on Western military systems and theories. Regarding these hard-won materials, Yuan Shikai devoted himself to in-depth study, intensifying his acquisition of contemporary military knowledge to enrich his military theories. At the same time, he distributed these materials to princes and ministers to broaden their perspectives, preparing them theoretically and ideologically for military reforms in the court. Yuan Shikai's systematic military thought garnered the appreciation of many court officials, earning him the reputation of being "knowledgeable in military affairs."

Yuan Shikai enforced strict military discipline, with comprehensive and detailed regulations, rules, and laws governing the New Army. Those who excelled in adhering to these rules were rewarded with commendations, monetary bonuses, or promotions. Conversely, those who violated the regulations faced punishments such as being struck with military clubs, publicly displayed with ear-piercing arrows, salary deductions, and in the most severe cases, execution

At this moment, Cao Kun is standing on the watchtower of the East Gate of Zhangjiazhuang with Ma Jianxun and Li Fu. In the distance, several torches flicker in the wind, overshadowing the officers and soldiers of the government forces, who are engulfed in deep darkness.

Understood, sir. Please rest assured that with our three squads, we will charge forward in one go

The cunning Yuan Shikai was well aware of the critical points within the imperial bureaucracy. He understood that the support of court ministers alone was insufficient; he also needed the backing of the inner court. Through a friend named Ruan Zhongshu, who had previously worked as a tutor in the home of Li Lianying's brother, he established a connection with the influential Li Lianying, who was favored by Empress Dowager Cixi. When Prince Chun and Prince Qing, along with the Grand Council ministers, recommended him for training the new army, the reclusive yet powerful Empress Dowager, who still held the reins of power, immediately approved the proposal. It was evident that Li Lianying played a significant role in this matter.

Although Li Fu's troops managed to hold the starting position at Zhangjiazhai, they suffered losses of seventy-five men, including forty fatalities. Most of the losses occurred during the chaotic fighting within the stockade. Recalling the dangers of last night, Li Fu felt a chill run down his spine

After Yuan Shikai succeeded Hu Youfan, he recruited more than 2,000 additional personnel on the basis of the original 5,000-strong Dingwu Army, which was composed of ten battalions. This formed the foundation of his new army.

Yuan Shikai regarded this rare opportunity as another important starting point in his lifelong career. He had recognized the significance of military power and put considerable effort into training troops at the Xiaozhan camp, demonstrating a strong commitment to hard work. He could not only name all the officers but also recognized even the lowest-ranking soldiers, being familiar with their personalities and characteristics. Yuan Shikai was acutely aware of the detrimental effects of the old army's practice of receiving pay without work, so he resolutely eliminated this malpractice in the new army, even personally overseeing the distribution of salaries.

In December 1895, with the recommendation of the five ministers of the Military Affairs Office, Emperor Guangxu finally entrusted the pilot task of reorganizing the old army in the capital and training a new-style army to Yuan Shikai, replacing Hu Yaozhen in training the new army

In military affairs, Yuan Shikai, through recommendations and his own efforts, gathered individuals such as Liang Dianhua, Wang Shizhen, Duan Qirui, and Feng Guozhang, all graduates of the Military Academy. Except for Liang Dianhua, who tragically drowned during a night drill, the latter three were known as the "Three Heroes of Beiyang." They became Yuan Shikai's most capable military assistants. Others, such as Military Academy graduates Cao Kun, Zhang Huaizhi, Lu Yongxiang, Duan Zhigui, Wang Zhanyuan, Li Chun, and Lu Jianzhang, also became trusted and valued officials under Yuan Shikai.

This battle was fought reasonably well, though the casualties were somewhat high. Cao Kun's Tianjin accent echoed far into the silence, "I will report to Lord Yuan and request merit for you." This statement was, of course, directed at Li Fu. "Take your brothers back to Maoyang Town to rest; you have worked hard.

Later on, Yuan Shikai introduced the concepts of regular and reserve troops from the West, initially establishing a reserve system. Soldiers who retired and returned to their hometowns continued to receive a salary lower than that during their service, similar to a reserve force. Furthermore, the regular army underwent additional reforms in its organization. A division was divided into two brigades, with each brigade comprising two regiments. There was one cavalry battalion, one artillery battalion, one engineering company, and one logistics company. Below the company were platoons, and below the platoons were squads. The total number of officers and soldiers in the division was 12,512, which was slightly smaller than the standard division size of the Japanese army.

In order to train the new army, Yuan Shikai hired more than 20 German professional soldiers as instructors for his new military forces. To enhance the quality of the troops, Yuan Shikai established the Camp Military Academy, which was essentially his mobile school, specializing in various fields such as infantry, cavalry, and artillery.

Although Yuan Shikai's New Army at Xiaozhan retained the names of the Huai Army's camp office, battalion, company, post, and shed, it had fundamentally broken away from the framework of the old military in terms of organization. It primarily adopted the modern structure of the German Army, dividing the military into infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering, and logistics branches. Each army was divided into two wings, with each wing comprising two to three battalions. Each battalion was fully staffed with 1,128 personnel.

Yuan Shikai's new army, trained at Xiaozhan in Tianjin, differed from the aforementioned organization. The origin of the Qing court's new army can be traced back to the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War. The battle in 1894 shattered the Qing dynasty's delusions of grandeur. Calls for military reform and the establishment of a new army surged. Hu Yaobang, who was then the Guangxi Inspector, was one of the main advocates for the reform of the new army. In the 20th year of the Guangxu era (1894), the Qing court ordered Hu Yaobang to organize the new army "Dingwu Army" at the Ma Factory in Tianjin, and in September of the following year, it was relocated to Xiaozhan.

Although Lord Cao praised Li Fu, the severe casualties in the troops also triggered Cao Kun's dissatisfaction. Cao Kun, who was usually lenient towards his subordinates, was reluctant to blame Li Fu at this moment; after all, Li Fu had defeated the bandits who had an absolute advantage in numbers and had defended the stronghold.

Yuan Shikai's new army was indeed incomparable to the Green Standard troops that the bandits of the Mongshan Mountains had encountered. Since the onset of the Hong-Yang Rebellion during the Xianfeng era, the regular army of the court had already disintegrated. The Qing court's military forces were originally divided into two main categories: the Manchu (including Mongolian) banner troops and the predominantly Han Green Standard troops. The once formidable banner troops had completely decayed two hundred years after entering the pass and establishing their rule. In the early stages of the campaign to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the combat effectiveness of the banner troops was proven to be inferior to that of the Green Standard troops, which the court had always regarded with little importance. In fact, the Taiping army of Hong and Yang had severely weakened both the Green Standard and banner troops. Ultimately, it was the local armed forces represented by the Xiang Army, formed by the courageous Marquis Zeng Guofan, that defeated Hong and Yang. The once formidable banner troops had completely decayed two hundred years after entering the pass and establishing their rule. In the early stages of the campaign to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the combat effectiveness of the banner troops was proven to be inferior to that of the Green Standard troops, which the court had always regarded with little importance. In fact, the Taiping army of Hong and Yang had severely weakened both the Green Standard and banner troops. Ultimately, it was the local armed forces represented by the Xiang Army, formed by the courageous Marquis Zeng Guofan, that defeated Hong and Yang. They had a completely different structure and training compared to the banner and Green Standard troops. Following the later Nian Rebellion, the remaining banner and Green Standard troops across various regions began to reform. It was not until the disastrous defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War that the court, which had always looked down upon Japan, began to reflect deeply and knowledgeable individuals within the court started to establish a new army that was entirely different from the Green Standard troops. They discarded the original ranks of the banner troops, such as the commander, deputy commander, and various other positions, and the Green Standard troops also changed their ranks, including the governor, general, deputy general, and others. The original positions were restructured, and the lower ranks were uniformly organized according to the new structure of the Xiang Army as set by Marquis Zeng. One hundred men formed a squad, five squads formed a battalion, three battalions formed a regiment, and three regiments formed a division. The deputy general led the regiment, the general led the division, and the commander led multiple divisions.

"Thank you, my lord." Li Fu saluted Cao Kun in the darkness and left the gatehouse

"Tomorrow, launch an assault on the mountain," Cao Kun said to the cavalry officer. "The artillery must be brought up; we can no longer afford to sacrifice lives. It is not worth fighting to the death against a group of bandits and prostitutes. Do you understand? However, the offensive must be fierce. I have already redeployed the first battalion to the eastern route; the bandits cannot hold their ground and will definitely break through and encircle from the east. The more aggressively you attack, the more they will flee the mountain."

The "Dingwu Army" was established by imitating the Western methods to train a new military force, hiring Germans Hannegan and Skner, as well as Norwegian Mande, as instructors, to implement comprehensive reforms in organization, training, and weaponry.

This time, Cao Kun led a total of over 3,500 troops, including three infantry battalions and one artillery battalion, to Mengshan to suppress bandits in his capacity as the governor of Caozhou.

The organization was thus, but at the turn of the 20th century, Yuan Shikai's new army still had a total strength of over 7,000 men. The court was quite affirming of Yuan Shikai's military training results, and his forces, along with Dong Fuqiang's Gansu Army and Nie Shicheng's Wuyi Army, were collectively referred to as the Three Armies of Beiyang. Yuan Shikai's troops began to adopt the title of Beiyang.

Yuan Shikai formulated the "Twenty Articles of Simplified Military Law," which prescribed the death penalty for eighteen specific offenses, commonly referred to as the "Eighteen Executions." These offenses include disobeying orders in battle, retreating in the face of the enemy, falsely claiming credit for achievements, desertion, feigning illness, causing delays in military operations, soldiers failing to advance when their leader is killed, abandoning weapons, leaking confidential orders, looting and pillaging, spreading rumors to mislead the public, engaging in fights, wandering away from camp at night, causing fires that disrupt operations, using opium, excessive drinking and gambling, allowing troops to disturb the civilian population, negligence in guarding, and causing disturbances that disrupt the military. All of these offenses are punishable by death.

Yuan Shikai is indeed a prominent figure of the late Qing dynasty. He understood that relying solely on his own strength was insufficient; he needed a group of like-minded comrades to jointly pursue this endeavor. He first sought out his childhood friend Xu Shichang to serve as chief of staff. Although Xu was not knowledgeable in military affairs, he was astute and possessed considerable talent, playing a crucial role in Yuan Shikai's new army initiative. In addition to Xu Shichang, Tang Shaoyi and Ren Shenxiu were also recruited as important assistants in his civil affairs.